chapter 2

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The main focus of this study is to determine if whether there are actually comparisons that can be made when it comes to the study habits between an honor and a non-honor student. In order for the researchers to analyze better the outcome of this research, information and data were gathered from several books and articles that may explain why people have different study habits and preferences. This chapter is mainly divided into three parts. The first part of this chapter will be deliberating about what studying and study skills are. The researchers will also mention about what metacognition is and what part it plays when it comes to study preferences. The second part will be about factors that may affect one’s learning perspective and explain why, despite having the same environment, people have different learning preferences. The last part will discuss some factors that may affect a person's study preferences and how important it is when it comes to study habits and their efficiency. This chapter will also cover about the factors that may cause people not to study. Theories that will be mentioned here will be discussed more clearly in the next chapter.

Before continuing on with the chapter, the researchers should first establish about what makes an Honor Student different from a Non-Honor Student? According to Wainberg (2010), Honor Students are above average and exemplary students who receives awards for their accomplishments. These are select few students who excel better when it comes to academics. Non-honor students, on the other hand, are simply those who might not be performing very well when it comes to their studies. Some of these students may have good study habits, but their studying may not be efficient or productive enough. Most students belong to this category. But what makes honor students so distinctive from the other students? Is it all related to IQ and genetics or are some other factors involved?

Studying, Study Skills, Metacognition:

The Mayland Community College (2002) says that being successful in school is not determined by one’s intelligence but by knowing how to study (p.2). Studying is reading/writing or doing activities that help them learn. According to Richarson (n.d.), studying helps students perform better academically. It also helps them remember past lessons easily and take in new information smoothly. Studying, according to the Mayland Community College (2002), is a skill. Being successful in school requires a high level of study skills. Students must first learn these skills, practice them and develop effective study habits in order to be successful. Good study habits include many different skills: time management, self-discipline, concentration, memorization, organization, and effort. Motivation is very important too (Mayland Community College, 2002, p. 2).

        According to Ozsoy, Memis, & Temur (2009), study skills are usually defined as students’ ability to manage time and other resources to complete an academic task successfully. ‘Study habit’ is the amount and kinds of studying routines which the student uses during a regular period of study occurred in a conducive environment. Crede and Kuncel (as cited in Ozsoy et al., 2008) defines study habit as study routines, including, but not restricted to, frequency of studying sessions, review of material, self-testing, rehearsal of learned material, and studying in a conducive environment. Lastly, students’ attitudes toward the act of studying are referred as ‘study attitudes’. (p. 156)

        Patterns of study can be different for all individuals. Some students learn better through visual methods while others can be auditory learners (Richarson, n.d.) This is where metacognition comes in. According to Pohler (2009), metacognition is “thinking about thinking” or “knowing about knowing”. It is knowledge about one’s neurodevelopmental strengths and weaknesses and knowledge about learning itself (p. 2). Metacognition is similar to Gardner’s (as cited in Pohler, 2009) intrapersonal intelligence, which constructs an accurate self-perception and uses it to make decisions (para. 2). Metacognition, according to Martinez (2006), is the “monitoring and control of thought”. Kolic-Vehovec and Bajsanski (as cited in Pohler, 2009) says that learners can benefit from good metacognition, which can aid in making strategies for academic tasks, such as reading comprehension (p. 4). Once a person can establish one’s own preferences, study habits can now be done tellingly.

Factors Affecting Perception of Learning:

        According to the Gestalt-Field conception of the environment, even though two individuals exist in the same space or environment, they still have different forms of thinking mainly because they may have different psychological backgrounds or they may have different sources of motivation. In relation to our study, this simply means that even if students are put in the same medium, they may have different learning preferences because of their personal backgrounds or they may have different forms of motivation.

        Taber (n.d) states that a parent’s attitude toward reading and writing can greatly affect a child’s perception on literacy. This is because children look to their parents and primary carers for guidance on everything. From safety to nutrition and the difference between right and wrong, the child takes its cue from those it interacts with most. In the eyes of a child, 'Mum/Dad is always right. according to Taber, if the parent shows disinterest towards reading, the child may think that books are unimportant and not know that they are in fact, sources of both pleasure and information. A child from a less literate home will enter school with little experience of reading and writing, may well be behind their peers in their knowledge of the alphabet and may not be competent with writing letters or making first attempts at reading (para. 2).

        Parental involvement in a child’s studies can also affect their academic performance. According to the results of a research done by Jeynes (2005),parental involvement can be associated with higher student achievement outcomes. These findings emerged consistently whether the outcome measures were grades, standardized test scores, or a variety of other measures, including teacher ratings. According to Jeynes, this trend holds not only for parental involvement overall but for most components of parental involvement that were examined in the meta-analysis. Moreover, the pattern holds not only for the overall student population but for minority students as well. For the overall population of students, on average, the achievement scores of children with highly involved parents was higher than children with less involved parents (para. 5). "Parental involvement, in almost any form, produces measurable gains in student achievement" (Dixon, 1992, p. 16).

Factors Affecting Study Habits:

Environment:

        There are several factors that may affect one’s study habits. One such factor is the environment. According to the the University of Alabama - Center for Teaching and Learning (2007), having a good study environment can increase one’s learning efficiency. When combined with effective time management, high motivation, good reading and note taking skills, and systematic test preparation, a good study environment serves as a catalyst for productive effort (para. 1). There are also several factors to be considered when choosing the right study place. The Cook Counseling Center of Virginia Tech (2004) states that the best choice for a study environment is somewhere where you always study and do nothing else. Then, whenever you sit down in that particular niche in the world you'll feel like going right to work (para. 1). According to the University of Alabama - Center for Teaching and Learning (2007), in order to work efficiently, one must eliminate all that may interfere with one’s concentration through using one’s senses:

• Hearing: Contrary to popular belief, not everyone needs to study in a perfectly quiet environment. One should know what level or what kind of noise they can tolerate. As a general rule, quieter is still better.

• Sight: Adequate lighting is very important so as to avoid eyestrain, headaches, or fatigue. One should also consider the movement around themself. Constant motion in the area may become very distracting.

• Touch: The environment should be comfortable but not too comfortable. Slight amounts of muscular tension have been found to increase efficiency and accuracy in mental work.

• Taste and Smell: Beware of appealing aromas (such as the smell of food coming from a nearby kitchen or exotic colognes worn by the opposite sex) in the immediate vicinity of one’s study environment. Such distractions, though pleasant, may interfere with concentration (para. 4).

Posture and Mobility:

        According to the Bucks County Community College (1997), a person should also consider one’s posture and mobility in attaining good studying techniques. Some people prefer to sit at a table or desk (formal posture) in order to concentrate and study effectively. Others are able to learn more easily while sitting comfortably on a sofa or lying on the floor (informal). Still others need to move about in order to learn, and reading while walking on a treadmill might be appropriate. Further, some people have the ability to sit and study for long periods of time (high persistence), while others need to take frequent breaks (low persistence). Recognizing one’s posture and mobility needs will help them to plan where and when they should study. (Bucks Community College, 1997, para. 12)

Time Management/Schedule:

        Another very important factor in studying is time management. Deficiency of skills in terms of effective time management is one of the most important problems of study habits (Glenn, 2003). Time, according to Kizlik (1997) is the most beneficial resource a student has but it is also one of the most wasted of resources. A schedule can save time. A good schedule should be made with the idea that it can be revised. The schedule guides a person on how to use their time in the most productive manner. It maintains the person on the right track and avoids him/her wandering off (Kizlik, 1997). A good schedule when it is properly managed, assigns time where time is needed, but personal motivation to follow it is critical. Sticking to one’s schedule can be tough. Avoiding study is the easiest thing in the world. It’s up to oneself to follow his/her schedule. A good deal of success in high school or college depends on this simple truth. (Kizlik, 1997, para. 5-12)

Reading Habits:

        A person's reading habit is also a major factor in studying. Sofsian (n.d) states that "children and teenagers who love reading perform better academically." They also have good language skills and have better mental development than other people. Reading also develops a person’s thinking and conversational skills and develops their creativity (para. 1). Isaac (2007) also says that through reading, one can also improve their focus and concentration. It can also help improve discipline and maximize their memory. Reading can also help a person build new associations with various subjects, improves reasoning skills, and builds your expertise (para. 5-20).

        According to Smart Schools - Smart Tools (n.d.), "reading can develop positive values in students. Teachers that will help develop their students' reading and comprehension skills early on in their education also means that they are preparing them for the 'real world'." Being able to read well means that they would have no problem understanding manuals, guides or contracts - vital documents and papers they will surely encounter when they join the work force (para.3). This is why parents are very much encouraged to teach children the importance of literacy at an early age and also become involved in their children’s studies.

Group Studying:

        Peer involvement can also be an advantage when it comes to studying. The College Board Website (2011) tells that group studying offers other advantages in addition to gaining a deeper understanding of class material. They can ask their friends about things that are unclear to them in the lesson. Each person brings different strengths, such as organizational skills, the ability to stick to a task or a capacity for memorization, thus working more efficiently. Group members, according to the website, may also help each other in solving problems which no one could solve alone. Members often have common goals, such as good grades. Each person’s work affects the other members, which results in making members supportive of one another. And lastly, it's more fun to study with others; the give-and-take makes it more interesting. And because it's more fun, you spend more time studying (para.4).

Note taking:

        Note taking is another important factor of study habits. Students who use proper study habits containing note taking and studying that notes, can preserve knowledge for longer time (Eliot et al., 2002). Oguz (1999), found a significant difference between the students who received note-taking training, taking notes at lessons and reviewing the notes and students who attend lessons without receiving note-taking training. Studies point out that effective note-taking increases students’ success at lessons (Austin, Lee & Carr, 2003; Bretzing et al., 1987). The Alamo Colleges (2009) says that note-taking is very important since it develops a sense of listening, allowing the reader to recognize main ideas and to understand the organization of the material. Not only does the student record significant facts but the lecturer's emphases and perspectives are recorded as well. Lecture notes provide the clearest and best indication of what the student should encounter on the exam. Taking lecture notes in class keeps the student's attention focused on the lecture, thereby increasing concentration, retention and understanding. The Alamo College also emphasizes that it also makes the student an active participant in the learning process rather than a passive listener or daydreamer. Making notes also means, most significantly, that you are present in class, a most honorable action to take as a serious student. The activity helps the student sort out important information—by synthesizing and beginning the actual learning process the student is actually making the material his own. The notes taken will become a study aid, an external memory device, and an instrument to aid in review and recitation. This process leads to long-term learning (para. 2).

Motivation:

        Motivation is also important when it comes to good study habits. Bear and Barone (1998) states that "motivated students see themselves as readers and writers." They spend plenty of time reading and writing, and literacy is a regular activity and habit, as strong a habit as watching television. These students have a “can do” attitude about activities that involve finding and recording information. They volunteer to look up topics, and they enjoy writing down information. Bear and Barone also mentions that motivated students are also risk takers; for example, they’ll try to read a challenging book, spell unfamiliar words, and use anew writing style. Motivated readers listen to stories and they talk to others about what they read. Motivated readers know where to find books, and motivated writers have audiences for their work including themselves (p.47-50). Motivated students like to “construct joint or group solutions to problems” with peers, and they want to share meaning with classmates when they work in groups or as a class (Tudge, 1990, p.168).

Factors That Hinder Studying:

        There are also factors that may affect the students' efficiency when they already have established a study pattern suited to their own preferences. One major and most common problem among students is procrastination. According to the University of Buffalo Counseling Services (n.d), William Knaus, a psychologist, estimated that 90% of college students procrastinate. Of these students, 25% are chronic procrastinators and they are usually the ones who end up dropping out of college. Procrastination is the avoidance of doing a task which needs to be accomplished. This can lead to feelings of guilt, inadequacy, depression and self-doubt among students (para. 3). Procrastination has a high potential for painful consequences. It interferes with the academic and personal success of students. Most students procrastinate because of poor time management skills and lack of self discipline and focus. These students easily get distracted. Some may be overwhelmed with the task and afraid of getting a failing grade. As a result, some students will spend a great deal of time worrying about your upcoming exams, papers and projects, rather than completing them. Others are affected by their pessimistic attitudes and they think they can’t do anything. Some might also procrastinate because of some personal problems like financial difficulties, problems with a boyfriend/girlfriend, etc. Others might simply find the task boring.

        Most of the studies cited here usually focuses on the factors that may affect one’s study habits. One example of such study is the research done by the students from Xavier University which emphasizes on “The Effect of Study Habits on the Academic Performance of Freshmen Education Students in Xavier University, Cagayan De Oro City, S.Y. 2008-2009” (Bagongon, C., Badlipan, C., 2009). As a result, the researchers decided instead to focus on the similarities and differences of the study habits of the students who come from the honor roll and those who do not, specifically the 4th Year students from the University of the Philippines Cebu - High School. With the help of the data mentioned in this chapter, the researcers may now be able to analyze better on what may be the results of this research.